Overcoming Obstacles: Mary Whiton Calkins' Career In Psychology
When people think about the history of psychology, the women that defined and advanced the field may not be at the forefront of their minds. While several psychological scientists are women, despite barriers of prejudice and discrimination, one forged a significant path of "firsts" for women in the field of psychology: Mary Whiton Calkins.
Childhood and early education
On March 30th, 1863, scientist Mary Whiton Calkins was born in Hartford, Connecticut. She was the first of several children born to her parents, Wolcott and Charlotte. Her childhood was spent in Buffalo, New York, where the family was close and the center of Mary's personal life. In 1880, 17-year-old Mary and her family moved to Newton, Massachusetts.
Mary's family placed significance on education. Her father was active in his children's education, helping them plan their future studies with an emphasis on college education. He encouraged Mary to attend college after high school, which was a progressive request for that period. Being a bright student, she entered Smith College as a sophomore in 1882 to study philosophy.
However, in 1883, Mary's younger sister died, and she took a year off to grieve with her family. There, she continued to study on her own. In 1884, she returned to Smith College and graduated one year later with a bachelor's degree in philosophy with a concentration in the classics.
Early career and continued education
When Mary and her family returned to Massachusetts, her father arranged for her to interview at Wellesley College, a women's college. After meeting with the university president, Mary was hired as a tutor in the Greek Department.
Mary worked in the Greek Department for the next three years, first as a tutor and later as a teacher. A professor noticed her skills in teaching and offered her the opportunity to teach a new course on psychology for the philosophy department. Before teaching, Calkins negotiated with her peers to earn an advanced degree.
Mary considered psychology programs at various institutions, including Harvard, where she could study under the prominent psychologists at the time and research in a laboratory. Her first choice was Harvard, but Mary still faced the oppressive forces of inequality for women. Until then, Harvard had not allowed women to study there. Mary's father and the president of Wellesley College sent recommendation letters on her behalf, but Harvard refused her admission, only allowing her to attend lectures. She could learn, but she could not earn a degree.
For a time, Mary decided to take classes at Harvard Annex. However, her professor, Josiah Royce, encouraged her to attend Harvard proper. There, she studied under William James (a prominent psychologist at the time), whose approach to psychology Mary admired.
Early study and career in psychology
While studying under William James, Mary learned about concepts related to consciousness, feelings, and the self. However, Mary was most interested in laboratory and experimental work. She decided to attend nearby Clark University simultaneously, where she worked with Edmund Sanford in his laboratory, who trained her on experimental procedures.
Mary returned to Wellesley in 1891 and started her post as an instructor of psychology for the philosophy department. With Sanford's help, Mary established the first psychology laboratory at Wellesley College, where women could easily research and study. The lab quickly became popular with students. Over 50 enrolled for the first seminar.
Despite these successes, Mary wanted to further her education in psychology. Given the barriers for women in academia at that time, she decided to look toward studying in Europe. She thought about going to Germany to study under Hugo Munsterberg, but she learned he would be coming to teach at Harvard, so she stayed.
While studying under Munsterberg at Harvard, Mary was able to conduct research. She published papers on dreams and association, as she and Munsterberg studied dreams with themselves as subjects. They would use alarm clocks to awaken at night and record what they had been dreaming of. They learned that dreams were similar to memories of events from the day.
Mary also started studying memory, which led to her inventing the paired associations technique, a test used to study psychological processes. She used this research as the basis for her doctoral dissertation, later published in 1896, an indicator of her intellect. However, despite her professors' recommendations, Harvard would not approve for Mary to have the degree she had earned.
While she did not have a formal degree, Mary was asked to return to Wellesley as an associate professor of psychology. Within two years, she advanced to professor status and continued her research. She published more papers on psychological topics and research findings.
During her time at Wellesley, Calkins developed a system called self-psychology, an extension of her dissertation focusing on the association of ideas and memory. According to Calkins, the foundational unit of study for psychology should be centered around the conscious self and focused on the introspective study of consciousness in relationship to others.
Mary's significant accomplishments
Calkins produced significant research related to dreams, memory, and the self. Throughout her career, she wrote over 100 psychological papers, four books, and a textbook, all of which were published. In 1903, psychologist James McKeen Cattell asked ten fellow psychologists to rank their American colleagues according to merit. Mary ranked 12th on the list, despite not being permitted to complete her doctorate in psychology after fulfilling the requirements at Harvard.
In 1909, the University of Columbia agreed to award her an honorary Doctor of Letters degree. In 1910, Smith College also awarded her with an honorary Doctor of Laws degree. Mary was elected president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1905. In 1918, she was also elected president of the American Philosophical Association. She was the first woman to hold these positions in both societies.
The end of Mary's career and life
Mary continued to serve as faculty staff at Wellesley College for the rest of her career. She taught there for 40 years, opening the doors for some other young female psychologists to learn about psychology freely. In 1929, Mary Whiton Calkins retired, leaving a legacy of perseverance against barriers. She died shortly after, in 1930.
The legacy Mary left behind
Mary Whiton Calkins made several significant accomplishments, even when others attempted to halt her study and progress. Further, she was a pioneer in a burgeoning field. Her work occurred when psychology was still a young form of science and research, so some of her work may have focused more on the unknown. At the time, Calkin's extensive research on dreams, memory, and the self was groundbreaking. The findings she disseminated in her papers enlightened people, offering a new understanding of the human mind.
One of Mary's most significant contributions to psychology (which was unpopular during her lifetime) was her system of self-psychology. This system offered an alternative perspective compared to the popular schools of structuralism and functionalism. By introspectively examining the self through philosophical and psychological principles, she offered new viewpoints, theorizing that people are conscious organisms with experiences and functions that drive them.
Outside of her work as a philosopher and psychologist, Mary also spoke out for women's rights. Mary was also a suffragist, fighting for women's right to vote. She identified as a pacifist. Mary personally knew the significant impact inequality had on women. She also personally demonstrated her commitment to social justice in 1902. At that time, she was offered a doctoral degree from Radcliffe, a women's college with ties to Harvard. She rejected the degree, expressing concern that accepting it would only further close the door for women at Harvard.
Overcoming obstacles and discrimination, Mary demonstrated that women were equally as capable as men. In addition, she achieved many firsts in the field of psychology and for women both at home and abroad.
Lessons to learn
Although Mary faced challenges, she tried not to let those challenges stop her from achieving her goals. One lesson to learn from the life of Mary Whiton Calkins is that there may be barriers to success, but barriers may open another opportunity. In addition, Mary didn't succeed alone. Her family, teachers, and peers built a circle of support in her life, helping her face these challenges.
If you have faced obstacles that seem insurmountable and lack support, you might consider seeking support from a counselor. Therapists can help clients work past these barriers, offering resources and teaching skills that can be used to improve one's life. If setting up appointments and traveling to an office for therapy is difficult, you might try online therapy through a platform like BetterHelp.
Online counseling allows you to choose your session format and find appointment times outside standard business hours. In addition, current research reveals that people who have tried both in-person and online therapy have found their online therapist as empathetic or more empathetic than their in-person therapist.
Takeaway
What are some interesting facts about Mary Calkins?
American psychologist and philosopher Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) made numerous contributions to the field of psychology and reached a number of milestones. Here are a few interesting facts about Calkins and her achievements.
- Calkins was the 14th president of the American Psychological Association and the first woman to be APA president in history.
- As a newly appointed instructor in 1891, Calkins set up one of the first psychological laboratories at Wellesley College in Boston, Massachusetts.
- Despite being granted special permission to attend sessions, Calkins was refused her rightfully earned Ph.D. from Harvard due to being a woman.
- Calkins wrote four books and over a hundred papers in her time as a psychologist and philosopher.
What was Mary Whiton Calkin's major contribution to psychology?
One of Calkins's most significant contributions to psychology was the invention of the paired-associates technique. This learning and memory technique typically involved asking individuals to associate unrelated words and syllables in order to encourage better encoding and recall. Paired-associates techniques may also be used to assess the learning ability of those with confirmed or suspected neurological diseases due to their ability to detect the presence of memory impairment.
What was Calkins unable to earn?
Calkins was unable to earn her Ph.D. from Harvard despite meeting all the requirements for the degree. At the time, Harvard was an all-male institution; while Calkin had been given special permission to attend classes. A committee of Harvard psychology faculty members, including Hugo Münsterberg, William James, George Santayana, and Josiah Royce, unanimously agreed that her work had earned her the Ph.D. Still, Calkins was refused the degree on the grounds that she was never technically a student.
Who is Mary Whiton Calkins and why is she important?
Mary Whiton Calkins was an American psychologist who made numerous contributions to the field and held a number of important positions. Acquiring her undergraduate degree in 1882 from Smith College, Calkins began her professional academic career at Wellesley College, where she was hired to teach psychology and some of the first psychological laboratories. Calkins also took seminars at Harvard and, despite meeting the requirements for a Ph.D., was denied her degree due to her gender. Despite this setback, Calkins was elected as one of the first female members of the American Psychological Association, becoming the first woman president of the organization only a few years later in 1905.
How did Calkins help psychology become a science?
While Calkins was not necessarily responsible for psychology being considered a science, she did make multiple contributions to the field of scientific psychology. For example, her establishment of self-psychology was integral in furthering the study of the conscious and functioning as it relates to our relationships with others. She also served as the first female president of the American Psychological Association, which helped to break down gender-related barriers in the field of psychology.
How did Harvard University discriminate against Mary Whiton Calkins?
Despite meeting Harvard’s requirements for a Ph.D. and being considered a remarkable scientist by a committee of psychology faculty members, Calkins was refused her degree on the grounds that she was a woman. This form of gender discrimination was a common theme of Calkins’s time at Harvard. While she was eventually given permission to attend seminars at the college, she initially struggled to gain access to Harvard’s lectures and laboratories. While she was offered a special doctorate by Radcliffe College, Calkins refused, going on to make multiple contributions to psychology and becoming the first female president of the American Psychological Association.
What is Calkin's legacy in the area of psychology?
Mary Calkins made a number of contributions to the field of psychology, including her creation of the paired-associates technique and the development of self-psychology.
- Paired-associates Technique: The paired-associates technique is a memory device that can help people associate pairs of words and ideas in order to encode memory and encourage recall. These devices typically were made up of two words, one serving as the stimulus and one serving as the response.
- Self-psychology: Calkin's theory of the self was built on her research concerning the associates between ideas and memory. She suggested that psychology should focus on the conscious self and introspection, which contrasted with the behaviorist views that were widely held at the time.
Why was Mary Calkins important in the history of psychology quizlet?
According to academic study website Quizlet, Mary Calkins is credited as inventing a widely used memory-studying method known as the paired-associates technique and establishing her own psychological system: self-psychology. Despite being refused a Ph.D. from Harvard due to her gender, Calkins went on to become the first woman president of the American Psychological Association and make multiple significant contributions to psychology. She was also the author of a number of books and the subject of an autobiography (which was reprinted in 1930 with the permission of the Clark University Press.)
What is paired-associates technique related to Mary Calkins?
The paired-associates technique is a memory and learning theory developed by American psychologist Mary Calkins. This technique works by pairing a stimulus and a response, often in the form of words. In many cases, these words are unrelated. For example, the stimulus word “dog” could be paired with the response word “boat”, or the word “tree” with the word “sky.” The effectiveness of the paired-associates technique may be due to its engagement of multiple mental processes: the learning of the response and the formation of the bond between the two ideas.
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