What Are Repressed Or “False” Memories?
Memory can be a mysterious thing. Depending on their recency and importance, the clarity of our memories may vary in certain contexts. Maybe you have a childhood memory that, even as an adult, you can still recall with vivid detail. Other memories might feel so vague that you wonder if they even happened at all.
Many people can have a unique set of memories and might classify them in various ways: such as good, bad or neutral. Some clinicians also identify a fourth category—repressed memory (or dissociative amnesia) which may occur in some after traumatic events.
In this article, we’ll investigate research on repressed and false memories, outline the common symptoms and causes of memory disturbances and consider how therapy can help you work through possibly difficult experiences.
What are repressed memories?
Not all memories might be warm, pleasant and inviting. Some memories can be haunting or traumatic. While we sometimes can simply shake off an upsetting event and move on from what happened, some may repress or dissociate from those memories—a concept often referred to by many as memory repression.
Repressed memory is often discussed in the context of child abuse. For example: A young adult may “block out” the memory of being abused by family as a child.
While more empirical evidence might be needed to show the role of repressed memory in child abuse, many clinicians believe that people can shelter themselves from trauma through memory suppression.
The repressed memory “debate”
Scientifically, it can be difficult to “prove” whether memory repression is a psychological mechanism, and it remains a major topic of controversy in psychology for many.
Studies of repressed memory have found information that suggests that emotionally negative memories can be easily connected to other memories.
In negative emotional states, it can be possible for many to activate and then “remember events” that were not experienced but related to the actual, experienced event. This may be the primary mechanism for “misremembering” events, and it can have both psychological and legal implications.
In the U.S., mistaken eyewitness identifications are thought to have contributed to approximately 69% of the more than 375 wrongful convictions that were eventually overturned by post-conviction DNA evidence, per the Innocence Project.
As these studies and statistics suggest, our brains and emotions can be powerful— but are not generally infallible. We can be readily influenced by emotions and external perspectives, which can fuel the creation of false memories.
When discussing traumatic memories with patients, researchers might advise therapists to be careful about using suggestive prompts (e.g., asking patients to elaborate on an old memory, suggesting possible memories, etc.), which can generate false memories.
Ultimately, two individuals can recall the same event in very different ways, so it can be important for clinicians and therapists to honor the lived experiences of their patients and proceed carefully and intentionally when unpacking traumatic memories.
Are repressed memories a symptom of ptsd?
As researchers continue to study the mechanisms of repressed memories, we can deepen our understanding as a society by addressing the most common symptoms that can be associated with this phenomenon.
Repressed memories can be associated with traumatic events. For example: An experience of trauma can result in memory disturbances, upsetting symptoms and a potential diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
In addition to possible memory repression, people who are diagnosed with PTSD may also exhibit some of the following symptoms:
- Flashbacks
- Avoidance of places or activities associated with the trauma
- Exaggerated startle responses
- Sleep disturbances
- Difficulty concentrating or remembering things
- Guilt about surviving or experiencing the trauma when others did not
We do want to note that while repressed memory may not be a technical criterion for a PTSD diagnosis, many people with this condition might report problems with memory.
Possible causes of repressed memories
Based on current research, negative emotions may play a pivotal role in the formation of repressed memories. Memory repression does not seem to occur in response to random situations, but instead in the presence of an intensively negative emotional stimulus.
Of course, this doesn’t mean that any negative experience or emotion will lead to repressed memories. We’re human, which means that most of us might encounter moments of sadness, embarrassment, anger or fear on a daily or weekly basis. For people who have experienced trauma, however, the everyday experience of negative emotions might be especially painful and more intense.
In the case of PTSD and related conditions, these emotions can prompt physiological responses that can interfere with an individual's working memory and ability to continue their daily routines.
When memories are traumatic, the person may forget aspects of an upsetting occurrence or the entire event. For example: A person may be intellectually aware that something happened to them, but the details and nitty-gritty aspects can become hazy or blurred.
In this sense, some clinicians describe memory repression as a form of self-preservation, as it may enable people to mentally avoid past experiences and proceed with their lives.
Common origins of repressed memories
There are many possible causes of repressed memories. Understanding the range of possibilities can help many to acknowledge their past and begin the healing process. We’ve summarized some of these common causes below:
Abuse
Reportedly, some patients have gone to therapy and recovered memories of abuse that were thought to be unknown to them before starting therapy.
As researchers continue to study the relationship between memory repression and abuse, therapists might consider honoring patients’ experiences wherever possible, asking them questions about their lives in non-suggestive terms.
Grief
At some point in our lives, most of us might grieve the loss of a friend, partner, loved one, a pet, or a job. Whatever the event, It can be important to recognize that all grief can be valid.
Stress
Stress has long been regarded by many as a possible factor in memory and overall well-being. Brain studies are thought by many to indicate that stress hormones may temporarily inhibit declarative and episodic memory in humans and can therefore reduce our ability to retain and recall relevant facts and information.
Next steps: Living well after trauma
If you have experienced trauma and are working to move on from those memories, you may consider seeking professional help. It can also be helpful to remember that while it may be emotionally painful to recall certain memories now, it can be possible to find freedom through the passage of time and implementation of self-compassion. The insight of professionals can also be a helpful way for many to address and heal from trauma.
How can online therapy help those who have survived trauma?
BetterHelp sessions can be held via video chat, phone call, texting/instant messaging, or live voice recording depending on your preferences. You’ll generally just need an internet connection to get started.
Is online therapy effective?
A growing body of research has found information that suggests that online therapy can be just as effective as in-person therapy.
In the case of depression and trauma-related conditions, one study published in BMC Psychiatry found that it can be more effective than in-person therapy. Per the linked study, online treatment that was specifically designed for survivors of PTSD was associated with a significantly lower drop-out rate and a greater therapeutic alliance with therapists.
Takeaway
What are the signs of repressed memories?
Repressed memories refer to memories that have been unconsciously blocked or suppressed due to their traumatic or distressing nature, in some cases these memories may be lost due to dissociative amnesia. Many of these memories may be lost due to emotional childhood events such as childhood sexual abuse, physical abuse, or other psychological trauma. Here are some signs that may be associated with the phenomenon, though these signs can also be attributed to various other factors:
- Intrusive thoughts or flashbacks: Sudden, vivid, and distressing memories or images from the past may start to surface unexpectedly.
- Anxiety and emotional distress: Unexplained anxiety, depression, or emotional turmoil that doesn't have an obvious cause may be linked to repressed memories.
- Sleep disturbances: Nightmares, night sweats, or other sleep disturbances related to traumatic experiences could be a sign.
- Unexplained phobias or aversions: Developing strong fears or aversions to specific situations, objects, or people without an apparent reason may suggest underlying traumatic memories.
- Changes in behavior or personality: Sudden and unexplained changes in behavior, personality, or mood can sometimes be associated with repressed memories.
- Somatic symptoms: Physical symptoms like unexplained pain, headaches, or gastrointestinal issues can sometimes be linked to repressed memories.
- Dissociation: Experiencing episodes of dissociation, where you feel disconnected from yourself or your surroundings, may be related to traumatic experiences.
- Chronic stress and anxiety disorders: Some individuals with repressed memories may be diagnosed with anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), post-traumatic amnesia, or other mental health conditions.
How do you unlock repressed memories?
The concept of "unlocking" repressed memories is a complex and controversial one within psychology dating back to the “memory wars,” of the 1990s. The existence and recovery of repressed memories are subjects of debate among mental health professionals, and there are ethical and practical concerns associated with attempting to recover such memories.
It may be important to understand that repressed memories are not like files stored away that can be unlocked with a specific technique or method. Instead, the recovery of repressed memories, if it occurs, is a complex and individualized process that may or may not happen spontaneously or through therapy. One type of therapy called recovered memory therapy, is designed to recover lost memories. It is a controversial therapy among psychological science experts because it may create false memories which may not be helpful for individuals who have experienced child sexual abuse, physical abuse, or emotional trauma. A false memory may occur through leading questions that cause an individual to believe an event happened in a certain way, even if reality was different.
What are examples of repressed memories?
Repressed memories, if they exist, may involve traumatic or distressing events that the individual has unconsciously blocked from their conscious awareness as a defense mechanism. However, it may be important to understand that the concept of repressed memories is controversial and debated within psychology. Some professionals believe in their existence, while others are skeptical, and the accuracy of such memories, if recovered, is often questioned.
Examples of repressed memories, if they were to occur, could include:
- Childhood abuse: A person might repress memories of physical abuse, sexual abuse, or emotional abuse suffered during their childhood.
- Accidents or injuries: Traumatic accidents, such as car crashes or falls, could lead to repressed memories of the event or associated pain.
- Violent crimes: Witnessing or being a victim of a violent crime, such as a mugging or assault, might lead to repressed memories of the incident.
- Natural disasters: Survivors of natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, or floods may repress memories of the terrifying events.
- Medical procedures: Some individuals may repress memories of painful or traumatic medical procedures, especially if they occurred during childhood.
- War or combat experiences: Soldiers who have experienced traumatic events in combat may repress memories of these experiences as a way to cope with the trauma.
- Loss or grief: The sudden or unexpected loss of a loved one could lead to repressed memories of the events surrounding their death.
Do repressed memories ever come back?
The question of whether repressed memories can come back is a subject of debate within the field of psychology. Some experts in the recovered memory debate believe that repressed memories can resurface over time, while others are skeptical of this idea. It's essential to understand that there isn't a consensus on the existence and nature of repressed memories.
If repressed memories were to resurface, it might happen in one of the following ways:
Spontaneous recall: Some individuals report experiencing spontaneous and vivid memories of traumatic events they had previously repressed. These memories may surface during everyday life, such as in dreams, flashbacks, or triggered by a situation or stimulus that is related to the traumatic event.
Therapy: In a therapeutic setting, individuals may work with a qualified mental health professional who specializes in trauma and memory processing. Through therapy, some individuals have reported recovering memories of traumatic events. However, the accuracy and reliability of these memories remain a subject of controversy and debate.
Triggers: Specific triggers, such as sights, sounds, smells, or experiences, may lead to the sudden recall of repressed memories. These triggers can bring back fragmented or vivid memories of traumatic events.
What does unresolved childhood trauma look like in adults?
Unresolved childhood trauma can have an impact on adults, affecting various aspects of their emotional, psychological, and physical well-being. The effects of unresolved childhood trauma can manifest in a wide range of ways, and the specific symptoms and behaviors can vary from person to person. Here are some common signs and consequences of unresolved childhood trauma in adults:
- Anxiety: Persistent feelings of worry, fear, or apprehension.
- Depression: Prolonged periods of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities.
- Mood swings: Frequent and intense mood fluctuations.
- Emotional numbness: Difficulty feeling or expressing emotions, often as a coping mechanism to protect against overwhelming feelings.
- Negative self-image: Feeling unworthy, unlovable, or inadequate.
- Self-criticism: A harsh inner critic that constantly berates and judges oneself.
- Trust issues: Difficulty trusting others and forming secure attachments.
- Intimacy issues: Struggles with emotional intimacy and maintaining healthy relationships.
- Codependency or avoidance: Patterns of becoming overly dependent on others or avoiding close relationships altogether.
- Reenactment of Trauma: Unconsciously repeating patterns of trauma in adult relationships or life choices.
- Dissociation: Experiencing episodes of detachment from reality or from one's own thoughts, feelings, or body.
- Flashbacks and Intrusive Memories: Re-experiencing traumatic events through intrusive thoughts, memories, or nightmares.
- Substance Use Disorder and Addictions: Using drugs, alcohol, or other substances as a way to cope with emotional pain.
- Physical Health Problems: Chronic stress-related physical ailments such as headaches, gastrointestinal issues, or autoimmune disorders.
- Difficulty Coping with Stress: Overreacting to stressors or becoming overwhelmed by minor challenges.
- Perfectionism: Setting unrealistically high standards for oneself as a way to gain a sense of control.
- Avoidance of Trauma Triggers: Going to great lengths to avoid situations, places, or people that may trigger memories of the traumatic events.
- Difficulty in Parenting: Struggling to provide stable and nurturing parenting due to unresolved trauma.
How do I know if I had childhood trauma?
Determining if you experienced childhood trauma can be complex, as it may manifest differently for each person. Childhood trauma may involve experiences of abuse, neglect, or exposure to distressing events during one's early years. Signs of childhood trauma may include recurring, distressing memories or nightmares related to those experiences, emotional difficulties like anxiety and depression, struggles in forming and maintaining healthy relationships, and behavioral patterns that may reflect coping mechanisms developed as a result of the trauma.
It may be important to remember that not all challenges or difficulties in childhood indicate trauma, but if you suspect you may have experienced childhood trauma, seeking the guidance of a qualified mental health professional can help you explore your past experiences and their potential impact on your well-being. They may provide a proper assessment and support to address any unresolved issues related to childhood trauma.
What triggers repressed memories?
The concept of repressed memories and what triggers them is a subject of debate within the field of psychology. While some experts believe that traumatic autobiographical memories can be repressed and subsequently triggered, others are skeptical of this phenomenon. It's important to approach this topic with caution and an understanding that not all professionals agree on the existence and nature of repressed memories.
If repressed memories were to exist and be triggered, potential triggers could include:
- Environmental cues: Specific sights, sounds, smells, or other sensory stimuli that were present during the traumatic event may trigger the recall of repressed memories. These cues can serve as powerful triggers because they are associated with the traumatic experience.
- Similar situations: Encountering situations or circumstances that are similar to the original traumatic event may bring back repressed memories. For example, a survivor of a car accident might experience flashbacks or intrusive thoughts while driving.
- Dreams and nightmares: Some individuals report that repressed memories resurface through vivid dreams or nightmares related to the traumatic event.
- Therapy: In some cases, individuals may work with a qualified mental health professional in therapy, and through the therapeutic process, they may gradually recover repressed memories.
- Stress and emotional distress: High levels of stress, anxiety, or emotional distress can sometimes lead to the recall of traumatic memories, whether repressed or not.
What happens when you remember a repressed memory?
When a repressed memory is remembered, if such a phenomenon occurs, it can be a complex and emotionally charged experience. Remembering a repressed memory can vary greatly from person to person, and the process may involve a range of emotional, psychological, and physical responses. Here are some potential outcomes and reactions that may occur when remembering a repressed memory:
- Emotional intensity: Remembering a repressed memory can evoke intense emotions such as fear, anger, sadness, guilt, shame, or confusion. These emotions may be overwhelming and difficult to process.
- Flashbacks: Some individuals may experience vivid and intrusive flashbacks, where they feel as though they are reliving the traumatic event. These flashbacks can be distressing and disorienting.
- Physical reactions: Remembering a traumatic memory may trigger physical responses such as sweating, trembling, increased heart rate, or a sense of detachment from one's body.
- Denial or disbelief: It's not uncommon for individuals to initially deny or disbelieve the recalled memory, as it may be difficult to accept or reconcile with one's existing understanding of their past.
- Confusion: Remembering a repressed memory can create confusion about the past and may raise questions about the accuracy and reliability of the memory.
- Desire for validation: Some individuals may seek validation or confirmation of the memory from others who were present during the traumatic event, if possible.
- Seeking support: Many people who recall repressed memories may reach out for support, often seeking therapy or counseling to help them process the memory and its emotional impact.
- Integration: Over time, individuals may work with mental health professionals to integrate the remembered memory into their understanding of their life story and experiences. This process can be part of healing and recovery.
Do I have trauma I don't remember?
The possibility of having unresolved or repressed trauma is a complex and individualized matter. Trauma can manifest in various ways, and not all traumatic experiences lead to immediate or conscious memories. Some individuals may have experiences from their past that they do not remember due to the mind's natural defense mechanisms, but it's important to approach this topic with care and consideration.
If you have concerns about unresolved or repressed trauma, seeking the guidance of a mental health professional, such as a therapist or counselor experienced in trauma, can be valuable. They may be able to help you explore your feelings and experiences, provide support, and assist you in understanding and addressing any potential trauma. It's important to remember that healing from trauma is a process, and professional support can be instrumental in that journey.
Where do repressed memories go?
The concept of repressed memories and where they "go" is a subject of debate within psychology. Repressed memories, if they exist, are believed to be unconsciously blocked or suppressed as a defense mechanism to protect the individual from the emotional distress associated with traumatic or distressing events. Repressed memories, if they exist, are thought to be stored in the unconscious mind. They are not readily accessible to conscious awareness but may influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviors from beneath the surface. This may be a psychological defense mechanism. When a traumatic event occurs, the mind may repress the memory as a way to shield the individual from the emotional pain and distress associated with that event. Some therapies may suggest that these memories can be retrieved through therapeutic processes.
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