Carol Gilligan: Theory, Work, And Contributions To Psychology

The development of identity often relies on a complex mix of factors, such as environmental contributors, one’s own inherent sense of self, and the ability to be self-aware. However, certain social and behavioral scientists believe that there may be more to this process. According to psychologist Carol Gilligan, there may be cognitive, moral, and relational differences between genders. The question many may ask is: How exactly do these differences come into play regarding one’s sense of self?

Below, we’ll explore the implications of Carol Gilligan’s work and theory of moral development. We’ll also discuss how women may form their sense of self and explore possible supportive strategies to help one know oneself more intimately—including, if needed, working with a therapist. 

Who is Carol Gilligan? Theory, psychological work, and background

Carol Gilligan is a Harvard-educated psychologist known for her contributions to women’s studies within psychology. Much of Gilligan’s work explores how gender shapes the ways individuals approach moral and sexual dilemmas, relationships, and decision-making. She is perhaps best known for her study of moral development: the gradual process of learning what’s right and wrong and developing one’s own moral values.

Born in New York City in 1936, Carol Gilligan graduated from Swarthmore College in 1958. After earning a master’s degree in clinical psychology at Radcliffe College, she attended Harvard University, where she earned a PhD in social psychology. Following a teaching stint at the University of Chicago, Gilligan returned to Harvard in 1979, where she worked as a professor in the School of Education. In 1997, she became the Patricia Albjerg Professor of Gender Studies, a position she held until 2002, when she began teaching at New York University. 

It was during her time as a professor at Harvard that Gilligan began forming her theory of moral development, which she described in her 1982 book, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. In addition to In a Different Voice, Gilligan has authored, co-authored, and edited several other books, including Meeting at the Crossroads: Women’s Psychology and Girls’ Development and The Birth of Pleasure: A New Map of Love. 

Moral reasoning and a woman’s sense of self

Your sense of self is generally defined as your personal identity. Many believe that a sense of self can develop through numerous channels, as experiences and connections can facilitate transformational events that impact how we view the world and ourselves. 

For some, families may be the primary means of shaping a definite sense of self. Others may define themselves by their careers or talents. Regardless, it can be important to remember that your sense of self is simply the way you see yourself at a given moment. This may shift as you change and develop throughout your lifetime—and to realize this can be powerfully freeing. 

Gilligan's differences between the genders

Moral development is often closely linked to one’s sense of self, as a person’s experiences and interactions tend to shape their moral values as they go through life (and vice versa). In this context, Carol Gilligan proposed that moral development, which was once seen as a universal experience of personal introspection and evolution, may actually vary between men and women. She hypothesized that different genders possess the inclination and drive to follow differing paths as they develop a sense of self and morality. She then hypothesized that these differences can impact every area of a person’s life, from self-awareness to moral judgment and decision-making. 

Gilligan believed that a woman's sense of self may not be separate from a man's, insomuch that it is a solid state of identity that is only presented in a single way. However, she is thought by many to believe that there may be differences between the genders in the way that sense of self develops—which can be seen in possible differences between female and male behaviors, ideas, and systems of morality. 

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivators

Gilligan’s hypothesis suggests that a woman’s morals and sense of self may be driven by an intrinsic, interior sense of care, community, and responsibility, rather than external motivators.However, please keep in mind that these views and theories ideas only reflect the views and theories of one psychologist, Carol Gilligan, and her contributions to the field (discussed later in this article). These views are not an objective, absolute truth and can be extremely harmful when imposed on others in an inappropriate way. Additional study and research is also needed to validate the experiences of trans, genderfluid and non-binary folks who may not align with the male or female perspectives. 

What is Carol Gilligan’s theory?

Carol Gilligan is noted by many to be the first person to prominently challenge the Freudian theory that men and women approached morality from inferior and superior perspectives. Carol Gilligan’s ideas regarding morality and human development were spurred by her disagreements with certain aspects of the work of Lawrence Kohlberg, with whom she worked as a research assistant. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, she believed, focused only on the way men tend to develop moral reasoning: primarily from a justice perspective, with a desire to avoid inequality. Those who develop a justice-based morality system may be more likely to:

• Push for all-or-nothing solutions
• See moral conflict in black-and-white terms 
• Prioritize fairness, rights, and rules when resolving conflicts

When tested on moral reasoning within Kohlberg’s system, women facing moral problems displayed an inferior ability to solve them compared to men. Based on her own research, though, Gilligan found that women simply took a different path to solving moral dilemmas. 

Rather than accepting Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, in which women had perceived deficiencies in moral thinking, Gilligan developed her own psychological theory of “care-based morality.” Unlike Kohlberg, she suggested that women make moral decisions using a different framework than men. Women’s development of moral principles and moral decision-making skills, Gilligan suggests, are focused on close relationships, connection, care, and other forms of prosocial behavior. Those who develop a care-based morality may be more likely to:

• Embrace compromise
• Collaborate to resolve conflicts
• Seek creative solutions that don’t cause harm to others

Kohlberg’s three-stage theory of moral development, on the other hand, emphasized the importance of operating within a set of rules or abstract principles that are universally applied. In short, Gilligan generally believed that men and women may not be inferior or superior to one another, but are simply different when it comes to moral perspective.

Three stages of the Carol Gilligan theory of moral development

In Gilligan’s framework, like Kohlberg’s, there are three stages: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional:

• In the preconventional morality stage, Gilligan argues, women are focused on their self-interest and individual survival. 
• During the conventional morality stage, morality is centered around self-sacrifice for the benefit of others. 
• In the final stage, the post-conventional stage, women make moral decisions based on limiting harm to both themselves and others. 

According to Gilligan’s care theory, the possible feelings of alienation and separation that many women and adolescent girls may feel—as well as the social pressures they may experience can be borne of a man's view of the world. This view, Gilligan believed, is governed by morality ruled by judgments and logic, while a woman's sense of morality, self, and navigation of the world may be ruled by the desire to feel connected and responsible. This suggests that when women and girls remain connected to their authentic moral voice, they may have an easier time navigating moral issues than when trying to conform to male moral systems.

Sense of community and its effects on female psychology

This automatic sense of community can be an important part of women’s experience in society, helping many to feel as though they belong, they are living in line with their values, and they are contributing to the world as a whole. Conversely, Gilligan believed that men might feel as though they must contribute with money, power, or similarly visible assets. She then concluded that women may derive their identity through the people they surround themselves with, their ability to care for others, and their ability to fulfill their responsibilities in their current societal context. Gilligan hypothesized that this may demonstrate an important (but not inferior) difference between those who identify as female and male. 

Carol Gilligan’s stages of moral development represented a significant advance in the field of developmental psychology. Gilligan has also been an influential figure in the feminist movement, as she was generally determined to make sure the experiences, viewpoints and ideas of women were listened to and acknowledged. Before Gilligan, it was not generally considered uncommon to exclude women from psychological studies, a standard which may have created significant gender gaps in the study of psychology as a whole. This consequence is regarded by many as something that occurred in addition to the exclusion of women from more rigorous study and, consequently, treatment, which was thought to have possible generational effects.

Continuing research on Gilligan’s theory

In the study of moral development, Gilligan’s research continues to generate interest, both among feminist psychologists and the broader scientific community. But is her theory of care still a valid claim? Do women primarily approach morality from a care perspective, while men primarily approach it from a justice-based perspective?

Studies of both men and women reveal that the topic may actually be more nuanced. Research findings suggest that both males and females can (and do) practice both care-based and justice-based morality, and that the type used may depend more on the specific situation than on the individual’s gender. This suggests that gender-based moral development is not universal. Again, however, note that psychology research is constantly evolving, and more studies are needed to explore the experiences of trans, genderfluid, and nonbinary individuals.

How to improve your sense of self: Supportive strategies for all genders

If you’re interested in strengthening your sense of self or clarifying your moral values, there are many different strategies you might consider. Some of the most common may include: 

Contexts of womanhood and gender

Learning about the many different contexts of womanhood and how women (and people of other genders) may exist in the world can be an important part of developing a strong and consistent sense of self. Without a sense of self, you may feel uncomfortable or uncertain about your own ideas and convictions or struggle in interpersonal relationships. Those with a strong sense of self, in comparison, may be better able to stand their ground on important topics and contribute to their communities. They may also experience a higher quality of life. 

Understanding the patriarchy's impact on moral reasoning

Learning about and acknowledging the impacts of the patriarchy on moral values can also help improve your sense of self, as you may learn to find loopholes, areas of weakness, and areas that are lacking within the current societal context. You can then work to fill them and color them with your own experiences, encouraging other community members to do the same for a more harmonious and vibrant societal experience.

Connecting with others to expand your social circle

Improving your social connectedness may help you strengthen your sense of self and identity while supporting your overall well-being. Although Gilligan claims that women tend to be more social creatures and thrive in community, people of all genders may benefit from social connection, which is known to support physical health, mental health, and longevity. 

How can online therapy support you?

Speaking with a therapist can also help you to become more confident and empowered in your own identity. If you want to meet with a therapist but are unsure how to start, you may benefit from the convenience and availability of online therapy.

The online counselors and therapists at BetterHelp can meet when and where it’s most convenient for you, including from the comfort of your own home, via video chat, voice call, or in-app instant messaging.

How effective is online therapy?

Online therapy is becoming increasingly well-studied, and a growing body of research supports its effectiveness. For instance, in a 2023 study, researchers analyzed the treatment outcomes of over 27,000 patients in the U.K. They found that online therapy was just as effective as in-person therapy for conditions like depression and anxiety disorders both of which can impact one’s sense of self.